Proper 12 – Year C
Sermon Notes from the Church’s Ministry Among Jewish People
RCL Readings – Genesis 18:20-32; Psalm 138; Colossians 2:6-19; Luke 11:1-13
ACNA Readings – Genesis 18:20-33; Psalm 138; Colossians 2:6-15; Luke 11:1-13
Seasonal Introduction. This season is often called “Ordinary Time,” a term derived from ordinal, meaning “numbered” or “in sequence.” However, there is nothing ordinary about this time. Rather, it is a time when we may reflect on how God (starting on Trinity Sunday and ending with Christ the King Sunday) has been at work in our own lives, the lives of his people, and how he will continue to work in the days to come. Ordinary Time is a season when we are invited to perceive the mystery of God at work in our daily lives, in the ordinary, in the mundane.
Common Theme. Persistent prayer is seen throughout the passages for the week. In returning to God again and again, we are shaped into people who seek His kingdom and depend on His grace.
Hebraic Context. The psalmist declares in Psalm 119:164, “Seven times a day I praise you.” In the Second Temple period, a rhythm of liturgical prayer shaped Jewish life. Scriptures speak of praising God’s steadfast love upon rising in the morning and His faithfulness when going to bed—even during the watches of the night. Whether due to anxiety or desire to worship, David proclaims he will meditate on God and His promises through the night.[1]
Jesus and the disciples, along with their fellow worshippers, would lie down with the Shema on their lips and when they rose in the morning they would pray it once again. Why? Because Deuteronomy 6:7 states, “You shall teach them diligently to your children, when you lie down, and when you rise.” And the best way to teach how to love God is to love God oneself.
The Jewish people would continue to pray throughout the day. The Amidah was offered three times daily: morning, afternoon, and evening.[2] [3] Blessings were offered in all things: in waking up God has given us life; in eating or drinking God has given us provision; in seeing the wonders of God at work in nature, from thunder to rainbows, God’s promises and power are manifest; and even in shitting the wisdom of God is manifest—as the sages wisely declared, “Blessed are You who formed man with wisdom and created in him many openings and cavities… if even one of them would be opened, or one of them would be sealed, it would be impossible to stand before You.”
The liturgical structure of the Lord’s Prayer is deeply Jewish and embedded in the daily life of Jewish prayer in the Second Temple period. Jesus isn’t teaching something new or a magical formula—He is drawing from a deep well of Jewish prayer tradition. The important thing is to actually pray and keep on praying. The prayer He taught opens with “Our Father in heaven” (אבינו בשמים, Avinu bashamayim) a phrase slightly less common than “Our Father, our King” (אבינו מלכנו, Avinu Malkeinu) but already a part of Jewish prayers. The Kaddish, a central prayer in Jewish life and death, begins “The Name of God be exalted and sanctified (יִתְגַּדַּל וְיִתְקַדַּשׁ שְׁמֵהּ רַבָּא), almost identical to “Hallowed be Your name” (ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου).
The rest of the Lord’s Prayer continues to reflect 1st century theology. Second Temple literature understood that a great conflict continues in the unseen realm—a conflict that, according to Jewish tradition, began not on earth but in heaven.[4] Angelic beings were the first to rebel against God's reign, and figures such as Belial or Samael came to represent this rebellion in apocalyptic writings. It is in this context that they prayed for God's will to be done on earth and in heaven—longing for the restoration His kingdom would bring to all things.
The relationship between God’s grace, forgiveness, and daily provision is rooted in the Torah. In Deuteronomy, God's discipline through hunger taught Israel to depend on Him: “man does not live by bread alone but by every word that comes from the mouth of the Lord.” Bread was not merely sustenance—it was a sign of God’s mercy. Deuteronomy also makes it clear that rebellion would cause God to no longer provide rain on Israel and they would be exiled from their lands. The Lord’s Prayer, in asking for daily bread, reflects this dependence on God, connecting physical need, spiritual trust, and God's generous grace.
In preparation for Yom Kippur, the Days of Awe, called God’s people to confess sins, seek forgiveness, and make restitution with one another. Jesus emphasized this theology, “So if you are offering your gift at the altar and there remember that your brother has something against you, leave your gift there before the altar and go. First be reconciled to your brother, and then come and offer your gift.”[5] We often need forgiveness because of our pride, anger, and greed. But we are to resist our evil inclination (yetzer ha’ra in Hebrew). Still, it is God who forgives and it is He who gives protection. He delivers us from both evil, and the evil one. Blessed be He who reigns and rules forever—our Savior and our God.
Genesis 18:20-33. The story of Sodom and Gomorrah is unlikely to be popular today. God’s judgment is often considered to be a mark against a jealous and hostile God rather than a sign of His goodness and holiness. God’s condemnation—seen in Peter’s account, where He did not spare the angels, nor the ancient world in Noah’s day, nor Sodom and Gomorrah, whom He made “an example of what is going to happen to the ungodly”[6]—is not, in modern eyes, the sign of a loving God. A judgmental God, it is assumed, cannot be a loving God; and a loving God, surely, would spare those who were simply enjoying a life free of sexual restraint.
However, this life free of restraint isn’t only about indulging “in the lust of defiling passion”. Genesis 19 does show a people who were sexually active in every way, including acts which God declares an abomination.[7] Ezekiel 16:49 explicitly states what Sodom’s guilt was, “Behold, this was the guilt of your sister Sodom: she and her daughters had pride, excess of food, and prosperous ease, but did not aid the poor and needy. They were haughty and did an abomination before me.” Isaiah 1:17, in conclusion to a passage where God compares Israel to Sodom and Gomorrah, states “learn to do good; seek justice, correct oppression; bring justice to the fatherless, plead the widow’s cause.”
Unfortunately, we have too easily reduced the sin of Sodom and Gomorrah to sexual immorality rather than looking at the larger picture. Sodom and Gomorrah did not practice hospitality, they neglected the poor, the fatherless, and the widow, and their sexual practices were not innocent but were full of violent desire to rape. While we may not commit the latter, by focusing so heavily on the sexual sin, we forget that we may actually be participating in the former—neglecting those who are in need.
However, Genesis 18:20-33 isn’t about the sin of Sodom and Gomorrah yet—the sin is only the catalyst for what follows. In Genesis 18:17-19, God asks “Shall I hide from Abraham what I am about to do… for I have chosen him, that he may command his children and his household after him to keep the way of the LORD by doing righteousness and justice, so that the LORD may bring to Abraham what he has promised him.” Then Abraham interceded on behalf of Sodom. Was this happenstance—or was this Abraham keeping the way of the LORD by doing righteousness and justice?
As followers of God, we are called to emulate God’s acts of loving kindness.[8] In Sodom and Gomorrah, we also see God acting in judgment. But we are not called to emulate God’s judgment on the world. Jesus told His disciples, “Be merciful, even as your Father is merciful.” They were to imitate God. However, His next statement was, “Judge not, and you will not be judged; condemn not, and you will not be condemned; forgive, and you will be forgiven.” God both judges and condemns, yet Jesus did not tell His followers to emulate God in judgment or condemnation.[9]
Although we don’t think of Abraham as a prophet, in Genesis 20:7, God declares that he is. This is not primarily because he received judgments from God or revealed God’s will to others—it is because he was a man who interceded on behalf of others. And that is precisely what Abraham does in Genesis 18:23-32. Many times a prophet’s intercession is profitable—God relented from utterly destroying Israel when Moses’ prayer of atonement,[10] the people of Nineveh repented when Jonah came to them, and Peter was released while the church stood before God in prayer.[11] The people of Sodom were given a chance to repent—but when strangers arrived, they chose rape and violence instead—and Abraham’s intercession did not bear fruit. But that didn’t prevent him from pleading that God not judge the just along with the unjust—and Lot was spared.
Clement of Rome summarizes both God’s mercy and punishment, “For his hospitality and godliness Lot was saved from Sodom, when all the country round about was judged by fire and brimstone; the Master having thus fore shown that He forsaketh not them which set their hope on Him, but appointeth unto punishment and torment them which swerve aside.”[12] In both Abraham’s prayer and Lot’s rescue, we are reminded that God does not overlook the righteous even when judgment falls on the unrighteous.
Psalm 138. David begins his psalm with a simple declaration of thanks. Yet Psalm 138:1-2 is anything but simple linguistically. The most obvious complexity is that David will sing God’s praises before the gods. אלוהים (elohim) appears over 2,500 times in the Scriptures. Often it means the God who created all things—the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; the God who hears and acts. However, the term elohim predates Biblical Hebrew in much the same way we might say “God” or “Dios” to speak of the one Creator God, as shown in the Scriptures, even though they have older and broader etymologies. However, while we can delineate between God and gods by using the singular or the plural, elohim is always plural and is therefore harder to interpret.[13]
The majority of times the Bible speaks of Elohim, it means the Creator God. However, it is quite common for elohim to also refer to false gods and demons—“that were no gods”.[14] And not only demons, but also occasionally angels or even people.[15] Regardless of whether David was speaking of false gods, angels, or powerful people, he would boldly sing the praise of God before them all.
Psalm 138:1-2 distinguishes itself from the remainder of the psalm through its use of poetic alliteration and structure.[16] David can give thanks, praise, and worship because God has spoken—His mercy and truth have been revealed, and His word has been exalted even above His name. When God speaks, it is manifest—“And God said, ‘Let there be light,’ and there was light.” Throughout the Scriptures, God’s word is manifest.[17]
God’s word, and with it His mercy and truth,[18] extends beyond David and Israel. The kings of the earth—possibly even the beings David sang God’s praise before, although other interpretations are more common linguistically—would also give thanks and sing of God’s deeds. God had answered David by preserving his life through many dangers. Finally, just as God spoke and man was created, David petitions that God would continue to look after His handiwork with mercy. And God does extend His mercy, at least for those who remain humble. David himself could testify to this: “On the day I called, you answered me.”
Hannah, David, and Mary could all see and declare that God cares for the humble by His grace, but they also could see that pride will cause the downfall of even the mighty.[19] Isaiah also speaks towards God’s presence with the lowly[20] while James and Peter both quote from Proverbs 3:34, “God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble.”[21] Giving thanks with our whole heart is a great way to stay humble before our God.
Colossians 2:6-19. Paul uses a common teaching method found both in Hebrew and Greek writings—progressive repetition—to reinforce and deepen each part of his argument, building toward practical application. He has already asserted that Jesus is the image of the invisible God and the creator, in contrast to the visible gods of the Gentiles. He has declared that Jesus is the head of the church and reconciled us to Himself through the cross. And he has urged the Colossians to continue in steadfast faith.
Now Paul circles back to his earlier point in Colossians 1:22-23—the Colossians must walk out their faith. Walking out our faith is seen throughout both the Torah and New Testament as it was a common metaphor in the Second Temple period for obedience—halakhah is the way we conduct our life according to God’s Torah. Since our faith is built on Jesus, who reconciled us, we can happily walk “abounding in thanksgiving.”
In Colossians 2:8, Paul turns again to the dangers of the Colossians former beliefs—this time philosophy and the elements. Paul doesn’t specify the exact system he spoke against, however, elementary principles (στοιχεια, stoicheia) was a popular term used in works such as Aristotle’s Metaphysics, where he states, “‘Element’ means the primary immanent thing, formally indivisible into another form, of which something is composed” or that which is “not further divisible”. Various Greek and Latin philosophers argued that the world is made up out of fire, air, water, and earth (or similar elements) and these are combined and transformed to form all physical matter. But this is not in accordance with Jesus. Creation wasn’t formed from elements but by the voice of God and nothing was made without Jesus.
Paul first told the Colossians that Jesus “is the head of the body, the church” and now he reminds them that He is the head of all rule and authority. But this is also a reminder that the Colossians are the body—the church. As the head of the Church, Jesus had reconciled them—being buried, as it were, with Him in baptism but also raised to life.
This letter is written after the Jerusalem Council, as recorded in Acts 15, whose rulings had spread widely across the Roman Empire and likely beyond. Gentile believers were not required to be circumcised or to keep Jewish food laws. When Paul speaks of the Sabbath, new moons, and festivals as “a shadow of what is to come,” he isn’t condemning the Torah as evil or obsolete—God established these things. But the law was always meant to point to something greater: it was given to lead us to God Himself.
We are called to love God. His Torah was always meant to be written on our hearts. We walk in His ways because we want to belong to Him—as His people, His children. If Jesus is not the Lord in whom we walk and are established in faith, we are in trouble. If the Messiah isn’t the head of the church, how are we to be reconciled with God? Neither philosophy nor asceticism nor even visions can replace God—visions may direct us, generosity is required as we share what God has given with those in need, and philosophy has its uses (as Paul’s own rhetoric shows), but they aren’t the substance by which we live.
Luke 11:1-13. While John preserves the longest recorded prayer of Jesus in the Scriptures, Luke emphasizes how often Jesus prayed.[22] But Jesus is rarely recorded praying out loud and in public, where disciples and eyewitnesses could hear the details of His prayer and record it for us. Instead, Luke speaks of Jesus going out into the wilderness or up into the mountains to pray. While Jesus participated in common Jewish prayer life—such as at His baptism and blessing God for His enduring provision of food—we aren’t given details of His daily prayer, nor do we know what He prayed about when He went into the wilderness or mountains to pray continuously all night to God. This lack of detail can be frustrating for us and it appears to have also frustrated the disciples, for they asked Jesus to teach them how to pray.
Several of Jesus’ disciples had previously followed John the Baptist. Andrew is specifically named as one, and he then brought his brother Peter to meet Jesus—placing Peter, too, in the vicinity of John’s ministry. The author of the Gospel of John was also likely a disciple of John before he became a disciple of Jesus. Very little is known about John the Baptist, but it would seem prayer was an essential part of his life and teaching, just as it was for Jesus and Paul.[23] Now, the disciples desire to continue learning how to pray.
Although the Torah does not contain an explicit, overarching command to pray, prayer has always been an essential component of life for those who fear God and was extremely common in Jewish life in the Second Temple period.[24] When the people of Israel are told to pray in the Hebrew Scriptures, it is typically in specific circumstances, such as Isaiah 55:6, “Seek the LORD while He may be found; call upon Him while He is near,” or Joel 1:14 “Gather the elders and all the inhabitants of the land to the house of the LORD your God, and cry out to the LORD.”
Today, we continue to have an emphasis on prayer being an essential part of our relationship between God and us. But prayer appears to be more than a simple conversation between God and us, otherwise, Jesus would not need to teach prayer to His disciples—conversation comes naturally to most of us at a young age, but prayer is something deeper. Interestingly, the most common Hebrew word for prayer—התפלל, (hitpalel)—is reflexive, suggesting that prayer isn’t about changing God’s mind but rather conforming ourselves to be judged rightly and worship Him.
Matthew emphasizes this reflexive God-oriented posture in his record of Jesus’ teaching on prayer. We act in accordance with God’s will; we forgive as we wish to be forgiven. This fits Matthew’s continued narrative of Jesus teaching not to think too highly of oneself as to be hypocritical. Luke, however, emphasizes something slightly different. Jesus is not surrounded by crowds when He teaches this prayer; rather, He is praying quietly in an unnamed location.[25]
After teaching them the Disciples’ Prayer,[26] Jesus adds illustrations to show that God desires our passionate persistence in prayer. We are told to keep on asking, seeking, and knocking—each of these verbs is continuous. We are not called to pray once but to make prayer a regular and ongoing practice. It is always good to glorify God; the angels stand before His throne and continuously call out “Holy, Holy, Holy.” Likewise, we should always remember that it is God who provides all we have. Paul offers a compelling example of persistent intercession and forgiveness in prayer: he tells the Corinthians—despite their offenses—that he continually gives thanks for them.
Scholars have long debated the differences between the versions of the prayer found in Matthew 6:9–13 and Luke 11:2–4. Some argue that Luke’s version reflects a more original or condensed form, while Matthew's reflects a liturgical expansion. However, the two teachings have very different contexts and are almost certainly different teachings with distinct lessons.
Matthew may well have originally been taught in Hebrew, as Hebrew was both the common language of Jewish Galileans and was used in Hebraic prayer, while Luke could make a little more sense in Aramaic.[27] In Matthew, Jesus prays “Our Father in heaven”, (אָבִינוּ שֶׁבַּשָּׁמַיִם, Avinu shebashamayim)—a classic Hebrew opening to prayer. Luke starts with a simple “Πατερ” (Pater), or Abba—which is not found in the Hebrew Scriptures as it is Aramaic.
Sometimes we approach God as our Abba—our loving Father—and other times we stand before Him as the sovereign Ruler of heaven and earth. Both are important when we pray. Sometimes we offer simple thanks for His provision; at other times, we urgently call out for His protection from the evil one. In all things, we are called to come persistently before God with humility, forgiveness, and thankfulness.
Hebraic Perspective. Fate is not a Hebraic understanding. In Greek mythology, tragedies run in a cycle that cannot be broken. For instance, Oedipus will end up fulfilling the prophecy regarding his family regardless—and often because—of the actions taken to prevent it. The outcomes for mortals in Greek tragedy are determined both by an unbreakable fate and by the unpredictable, often arbitrary will of the gods, illustrated in stories of Hippolytus, Antigone, and Pentheus. Lucius Seneca, a stoic philosopher who lived at the same time as Jesus and the Apostles, wrote, “I know that everything is ordained and proceeds according to a law that endures forever. The fates guide us, and the length of every man’s days is decided at the first hour of his birth: every cause depends upon some earlier cause: one long change of destiny decides all things, public or private.”[28]
In contrast, Jewish thought maintains a dynamic tension between God dwelling on the throne and mankind’s freedom of choice. Rabbi Hanina is quoted as saying, “Everything is in the hands of Heaven, except for the fear of God.”[29] Pirkei Avot 3.15 states, “Everything is foreseen yet freedom of choice is granted, and the world is judged with goodness.” This balance is seen in several key points within the Scriptures: intercessory prayer and prophecy.
God makes everlasting covenants and He makes promises that He will keep, but biblical prophecy of judgment is rarely set in stone. For those who fear God and repent, condemnation is often turned aside. But for those who do not fear God, the prophecy and judgment will surely take place. When a prophecy of judgment is not fulfilled due to repentance, God’s word does not become void—instead, there is rejoicing.
Throughout Scripture, men and women of faith intercede on behalf of others: Abraham, Moses, Samuel, David, Abigail, the sons of Korah, Solomon, Elijah, Amos, Jonah, Nehemiah, Daniel, Esther, and Jesus. When a prophecy of judgment is spoken, God does not expect us to sit back passively or to rejoice in another’s downfall—though justice may bring a measure of comfort. Instead, we are called to intercede. Our intercession should be evident in both our prayers and in our actions. Additionally, Jesus tells us that our prayers should be persistent.[30]
God doesn’t always relent, nor does man always repent—as is the case in Genesis 18-19. But God has told us that even if a man sinned their whole life and repents, turning away from their ways, they shall live. Indeed, God declares, “I have no pleasure in the death of anyone, declares the Lord GOD; so turn, and live.”[31]
Endnotes
[1] Psalm 5:3; Psalm 92:1-2; Psalm 134:1-2; Psalm 63:6; Psalm 119:62, 148.
[2] The Amidah is a series of 18 prayers that include praise, supplications, intercessions, and thanksgiving beginning with, “You are holy and Your Name is holy.”
[3] Part of the benefit of something like the Book of Common Prayer is that we have prayers morning, midday, afternoon, and night—just as we see in Scripture and practiced by Jesus and the disciples. We are constantly reminded to turn to God in all things and meditate on His word day and night.
[4] Isaiah 14, Ezekiel 28; also I Enoch and 1QM, the War Scroll—Qumran’s apocalyptic literature.
[5] Matthew 5:23-24
[6] II Peter 2:4-10
[7] This includes same-sex intercourse, as spoken of in Leviticus 18:22, Leviticus 20:13; I Corinthians 6:9-10, and I Timothy 1:9-10 but also includes bestiality, incest, prostitution—particularly in relation to idolatry—, and adultery. The Scriptures and Jesus also point out that lust of the heart and mind along with pornography are also forms of adultery and are sinful.
[8] Gemilut chasidim in Jewish tradition or imitatio Dei in Latin.
[9] There is a role for judgment within the body of believers, as in matters of discipline and accountability (Matthew 18:15–20), though it is to be done in love with the goal of restoration. There is also a distinct role for judgment entrusted to secular governing authorities in maintaining justice and order (Romans 13:1–5). These limited human judgments differ from God’s ultimate and universal judgment, which remains His alone. Pirkei Avot 4.7-8 states that, “none may judge alone, save one.” Similarly, Clement of Rome quotes Luke 6:36-38 showing that the early church upheld Jesus’ teaching to model mercy rather than judgment. (I Clement 13.2-4)
[10] Exodus 32:9-14, 30-35.
[11] Acts 12:6-12
[12] I Clement 11:1
[13] Early translations, such as the Greek Septuagint and Aramaic Targum’s can help us with the interpretation.
[14] Deuteronomy 32:17, see also: Exodus 20:3; Exodus 32:4, 8; Deuteronomy 5:7; Deuteronomy 32:31 (in the LXX), 37; Judges 2:3; I Samuel 4:7-8 (a misunderstanding by the Philistines); II Kings 18:33; II Kings 19:12, 18; I Chronicles 16:26; Psalm 96:5; Isaiah 41:23; Isaiah 42:17;
[15] Psalm 8:5; Hebrews 27, see also: Psalm 82:1-6; John 10:34; Exodus 21:6, 22:8-9 (as interpreted in the Aramaic Targum); The Greek translation of Genesis 3:5 first translates Elohim in the singular, θεος (Theos) referring to the creator God. However, the second time it translates elohim in the plural, θεοι (theoi).
[16] Psalm 138:1-2:
לְדָוִד: אוֹדְךָ בְכָל-לִבִּי; נֶגֶד אֱלֹהִים אֲזַמְּרֶךָ.
אֶשְׁתַּחֲוֶה אֶל-הֵיכַל קָדְשְׁךָ, וְאוֹדֶה אֶת-שְׁמֶךָ
עַל-חַסְדְּךָ וְעַל-אֲמִתֶּךָ:
כִּי-הִגְדַּלְתָּ עַל-כָּל-שִׁמְךָ, אִמְרָתֶךָ.
[17] Psalm 29:3-9; Exodus 19:18-20, 20:18
[18] Or love and faithfulness in some translations.
[19] I Samuel 2:1-10; Luke 1:46-55; II Samuel 22:28
[20] Isaiah 57:14-16, 66:1-2
[21] James 4:6; I Peter 5:5—from the LXX.
[22] Luke 3:21; Luke 4:1-2; Luke 5:16; Luke 6:12; Luke 9:18, 28-29; Luke 10:21-22; Luke 11:1; Luke 22:31-32, 39-46; Luke 23:34, 46; Luke 24:30, 50-51
[23] Paul begins the majority of his epistles encouraging the church and speaking of his constant prayer and thanksgiving for both large churches and individuals within those churches.
[24] Prayer is one of the many commands given in the New Testament that was not given in the Old Testament. While not commonly thought about, it is commonly accepted that there are more commands in the New Testament than in the Old Testament. God’s commands continue to be good as they show us precisely how we ought to love God and our neighbour.
[25] Having just left Martha’s home in Bethany, in Luke’s narrative, the logical place for Jesus to be is on the side of the Mount of Olives, roughly around the garden of Gethsemane, as he commonly went there to stay and pray according to Luke in Luke 21:37-38 and Luke 22:39. However, Luke isn’t necessarily in Chronological order and he simply states, “a certain place” so we cannot be sure.
[26] The prayers in Matthew 6 and Luke 11 are both commonly referred to as the Lord’s prayer. This is a long-standing tradition from the early church fathers and is an excellent descriptor. The Disciple’s prayer is a more modern naming convention for these prayers as they teach how a disciple should pray. Both titles are appropriate and useful.
[27] Aramaic was one of the two most common languages across the Parthian Empire (along with Parthian). Other languages would be spoken in specific localities within the Parthian Empire, including Syriac, Hebrew, and Greek. While the Jewish diaspora mentioned in the Epistles is largely focused on the west, the diaspora extended across much of the known world in the 1st century. A large and long-established Jewish population lived within the Parthian Empire, which bordered the Roman Empire and successfully resisted its eastern expansion. While the Mishnah, largely composed in the Galilee, was written in Hebrew in the 2nd–3rd centuries AD, the Babylonian Talmud—like the Jerusalem Talmud, written largely in Aramaic by the 5th century—eventually became far more influential, reflecting the growing prominence of the eastern diaspora. Nonetheless, Hebrew remained the primary language of religious life in Galilee and Judea during the earlier period. Nineteenth-century German scholarship often downplayed the Bible’s literal reliability and Jewishness. These assumptions filtered down, particularly through grammars and commentaries that remained standard for decades. The idea that Jesus spoke Aramaic rather than Hebrew became a widespread scholarly claim as Jesus Himself was increasingly separated from His Jewish culture. Certainly Jesus would have spoken Aramaic, along with Greek and likely Latin, but more recent scholarship has returned to the understanding that Hebrew was not only a common language in the 1st Century AD, but likely the heart-language of many Jewish people throughout the Galilee and even Judea.
[28] Seneca, De Providentia V
[29] Berakhot 33b.23
[30] Luke 11:5-13
[31] Ezekiel 18:21-32